What are physical education teachers being told about how to teach sport ? An exploratory analysis of sport teaching in physical education

This literature review investigated current and emerging pedagogical directions indicated to physical education (PE) teachers in the research literature. The search strategy used the Google Scholar database to initiate the scan, and then extended into other databases as well as the reference lists of published papers to locate relevant studies. Criteria for inclusion of papers for this review included: 1. Published in English between 2000 to December 2015; 2. Original research published in either peer reviewed journals or text books; 3. Addresses the delivery of sport and PE within both Australian and international school aged children and young people; 4. Papers or book chapters that addressed theoretical underpinnings and concepts of delivering sport and PE. The search identified 57 papers or chapters for inclusion. The major findings of the analysis were: 1. Game Based approaches (such as Game Sense (Australia), TGfU (United Kingdom) and Tactical Games (North America) to learning in PE technical and tactical dimensions of skilled performance in game play are promoted; 2. The Sport Education curriculum and instruction model is well researched and validated as a design to provide authentic, educationally rich sport experiences for students in the context of school PE; and 3. Personal and social development is an often-cited outcome of quality PE teaching in schools. Researchers have supported the use of a “tool kit” of instructional strategies to achieve student learning outcomes in PE (Pill, 2011).


Introduction
We acknowledge the place of sport in physical education (PE) is contested, and it is not universally agreed that sport in PE is good for, or engages, all children.However, sport has also been described as 'pivotal' (Green, 2000) and integral (Bailey & Kirk, 2009) to PE. Laker (2002) argues that in broad terms "sport, in the educational guises of PE and school sport, has a major role to play in the education of young people" (p.6), legitimating the existence of PE in schools (Laker, 2003).Kirk (2006) also makes a strong case for the inclusion of sport in school PE as play, games and sports at their best are conceived as intrinsically good things, among the most important and serious of human activities and hence they are an important part of the school curriculum.Internationally, games and sport are recognised as one of the most important elements of the PE curriculum, representing the "prime source of content and key contexts for teaching and learning" (Lopez, Jordan, Penney & Chandler, 2009, p. 47).Recently, Drummond & Pill (2011) argued for a curriculum vision for sport in PE that moves class participation beyond narrow technical and elite perspectives of sport participation to one which is more inclusive and understanding of broader sociological issues.They view sport in Australia as a significant cultural practice which demands a place within the PE curriculum.The authors agree with Brooker and MacDonald (1993) that sport within PE should assist PE as an educational process in order to promote, engage and facilitate sport participation within school, and beyond.
Remaining true to Arnold's (1979) definition of learning in PE and the Arnoldian conceptualisation of PE influencing Australian (Australian Council for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 2008) and international (Brown & Penney, 2012;Kirk, 1988) theorising and developments relating to the form and content of PE curricula, Drummond and Pill (2011) suggest that sport teaching and learning in PE is considered a context for:

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Learning in sport -this includes sport skill acquisition; • Learning about sport -recognising that sport is structured in certain ways to bring about particular outcomes; and • Learning through sport -understanding the embodied experience of sport to learn about a range of matters.Pill (2008) frames these three dimensions as sport literacy.He suggests that sport literacy is potentially both a praxis and curriculum scaffold for sport curriculum design and enactment.
He makes this claim because it expands the construction of 'ability' in PE typically viewed in PE as a singular capacity centred on technical constructions of motor development.It does this by framing sport using the three types of movement learning that Arnold (1979) indicated as forming the distinctiveness of PE.
Confronting the norms of the traditional PE method that still remains the status quo in many school PE settings will play a pivotal role in educating through sport in areas of personal and social skill development, physical activity and participation, and the health of individuals and communities (Pill, 2015).We agree with Gimenez, Valenzuela and Casey (2010) that if teachers are being asked to change their practices then this should be informed by research evidence of comparative studies so that they can diversify their practice with understanding.
This literature review investigated current and emerging pedagogical directions indicated to PE teachers in the research literature.For many years, literature has supported the use of a "tool kit" of instructional strategies to achieve student learning outcomes in PE (Pill, 2011).For example, Mosston's Spectrum of Teaching Approaches (Mosston, 1966;Mosston & Ashworth, 2008) is an example of one of these enduring ideas.More recently, however, scholarly and research literature has been promoting models based practice (MBP), particularly as a means for implementing student-centred approaches to learning (Casey, 2014;Hastie & Casey, 2014).Metzler (2011) describes pedagogical models as blueprints for PE teaching, learning and assessment where each model has distinctive teaching and learning objectives.Casey (2014) suggested that while MBP has begun to help PE teachers to change and develop their pedagogies and curriculum we still do not fully understand the impact of changing to a MBP.Furthermore, advocates of MBP practice need to explore the pedagogical and curricular ramifications on teachers of the long-term adoption of a MBP.However, not all scholars are in agreeance with the concept and associated calls for fidelity to models by MBP advocates, with some arguing PE teachers are pragmatic interpreters of theory.Therefore, calls for model fidelity are inherently flawed (Stolz & Pill, 2014).
As this report is detailing the current and emerging effective pedagogical practices that PE teachers and student teachers are learning and practicing it is useful to define the scope of the term 'pedagogy'.Tinning (2008) notes that the term, 'pedagogy' has widespread use in the fields of PE and sports coaching and is now established as an academic sub-discipline.While the term pedagogy has seen increased use in the English-speaking world the increased usage has not led to a coherent or shared understanding of what the term means.Tinning (2008) therefore argues for a notion of pedagogy that is generative in enabling teachers to think about the process of knowledge (re)production across the many sub-disciplines of kinesiology, including, but not limited to, sport pedagogy.It is this broader view of pedagogy that this literature review will use.

Method
Adopting similar methodology to Wallhead and O'Sullivan (2005) and Stolz and Pill (2014) to search the electronic database a combination of 'keywords' and 'search terms' were used.
The initial search began using Google Scholar.These 'key words' and 'search terms' had been formulated by the authors of this literature review as we considered they directly addressed the topic under consideration -sport teaching in PE.The 'keywords' and 'search terms' used are summarised in Table 1.The criteria for inclusion of papers for this review were: • Contemporary: Published in English between 2000 to 2015; • Original: Research published in either peer reviewed journals or edited text books; and • Research addresses the pedagogical delivery of sport and PE.
The exclusion criteria consisted of; 1. Research on sport programs rather than the pedagogy or curriculum approach of delivery; 2. Papers that compare pedagogical approaches across countries, and 3. Papers essentially repeating the findings already published.Where possible, existing research summaries and systematic reviews were used in order to manage most effectively the large body of literature pertaining to sport teaching in PE.The literature used in the following comparative analysis is summarised in Tables 2-4.

Results and discussion
The exploratory analysis of the literature presented in Tables 2-4 revealed three categories of publication.The first category of publication consisted of game-based models for sport and sport related games teaching (Table 2) focussed on the intent to teach game competency.The publications explored the tenets of the model or compared a game-based model to a more 'traditional' PE Method (Metzler, 2011), which Kirk (2010) has described as sport taught as sport techniques.Game based models use a classification system of games composing four categories based on common tactical elements called principles of play (Hopper & Bell, 2001).This is why Metzler (2011) , 2016).This category of publications also considered assessment of sport in PE.The literature is suggesting game performance assessment procedures for 'authentic' assessment of ability or competency.Richard, Godbout & Grèhaigne (2000), Pill (2008), Roberts and Fairclough (2012) and Mitchell, Oslin and Griffin (2013) have explained that valid tools are available for the assessment of students' participation in sport related games.Literature suggests students from Grade 5 are capable of using game observation tools with a moderate to good level of precision and inter-observer reliability, and that as the grade level increases their assessments become more accurate and reliable (Richard et al, 2000).
While the literature is unclear to the technical skill acquisition advantages of game-based compared to a more traditional directive practice style the evidence suggests young people enjoy sport taught using a game-based model.Students are reported to be more highly likely to participate and remain participating in sport and physical activity across the life span when these approaches are used.

Students' precision and interobserver reliability of performance assessment in team sports
Demonstrated that students at the Grade 5-8 levels are capable of using the Team Sport Assessment Procedure (TSAP) with a moderate to good level of precision and interobserver reliability, this being more so as the grade level increases.

Games classification system: Teaching strategic understanding and tactical awareness
The Tactical Awareness Components to Increase Cognition (T.A.C.T.I.C.) framework with the principles of play for games offers a systematic way to teach the tactical complexity of games in the net/wall, territory, target and batting/fielding game categories.The effect of equipment scaling on the skill acquisition of beginning tennis players

Publication Title Findings
The modified ball/scaled court intervention group rated their experience significantly happier than the standardised adult group.There is a stronger learning effect generated by court scaling relative to the influence of ball type.Positive pedagogy for physical education and sport: Game Sense as an example

Publication Title Findings
The positive nature of games based approaches can support learning and make it flourish.Through this approach, learning to learn along with social learning make it more likely that students will transfer their understanding into other aspects of life.to a new relationship between SE and TGfU they called the 'Clinic-Game Day' model.Ennis (1999) described the Sport for Peace approach entwined with the SE model structures that included additional foci of: Students reported that they enjoyed the unit, regardless of the teaching approach adopted and they believed that they experienced improvement in skills, especially those in SE.Furthermore, no student expressed the belief that the 'season' or unit was too long.
The students in SE reported that they enjoyed the greater autonomy and organisation duties within the SE model, but the students in the Traditional Group felt that their group was not capable of the autonomy given to SE. Kirk, D. (2004) The third category of publication dealt with personal and social development in PE using sport as the context for this development.In this category there was some overlap with the SE literature.For example, Harvey, Kirk and O'Donovan (2014) explained that the SE model can be a context for character development if designed deliberately for this intention.They suggested that four pedagogical applications within SE be considered by PE teachers, youth sport practitioners and administrators to promote ethical development: 1. ethical contracts; 2. sports panels; 3. modified games; and 4. awards and rewards systems.
Personal and social development is an often-cited outcome of a quality PE program in schools (Kirk, 2010).With growing media attention on elite athletes and their behaviours and the media positioning childhood and youth in a polarised manner as being either dangerous or in danger (Prout & Hallett, 2003) (Danish, 2002) and Hokowhitu Program (Heke, 2001).An emerging field of discussion revealed in the literature scan was that of Physical Literacy.Lundvall (2015) provided a synthesis of the literature in the field of Physical Literacy since 2000.
The potential for Physical Literacy to positively re-brand and revitalise PE was suggested, however, in some jurisdictions the concept had been misrepresented as a synonym for fundamental movement skill teaching or sport skill teaching.It is recognised that the concept of Physical Literacy is contested with questions raised about multiple definitions and empirical support for the assertions associated with the concept.We suggest the current debate about Physical Literacy is an extension of the ongoing challenge for PE to move beyond what Dyson, Griffin & Hastie (2004) described as 'superficial engagement' with matters of pedagogy to move towards better informed practice that 'powers up' sport teaching in PE.Recently, Physical Literacy seems to have been re-imagined away from its origins as a philosophy (Whitehead, 2001) and a potential outcome of PE (Sprake and Walker, 2015) to a pedagogical proposition and model for PE in search of a supportive pedagogical argument and structure (Kirk, 2013).

Conclusion
The major findings of the comparative analysis were: 1. 3. Personal and social development is an often-cited outcome of quality PE teaching in schools and to be achieved needs to be a deliberate pedagogical focus of the PE teacher.
The relevance of contemporary pedagogies through MBP based approaches like the gamebased model (such as the Australian Game Sense approach), SE and TPSR are encouraging innovation away from the more historically common directive practice style of the 'traditional' PE method.With respect to game-based models, the literature is challenging educators to use pedagogical approaches that have been shown to enhance learner engagement compared to a more traditional directive style framing sport as sport techniques when teaching for game competency.To fully deliver on the Arnoldian idea of PE as education in, through and about movement using sport as the educative vehicle, the SE model has been shown to be a curriculum model through which those three educative pillars can be enacted.Directly linking sport teaching and learning in PE through this Arnoldian concept, Sport Literacy (Drummond & Pill, 2011;Pill, 2015) has been specifically described as a curriculum concept for the valuing of learning in, through and about sport in PE.Sport literacy is potentially both a praxis and curriculum scaffold for sport curriculum design and enactment in PE.

Table 1 .
Search terms for the literature review called game-based models 'tactical' models in his MBP framework.Since 2010 the following pedagogical approaches have been identified with game centred or game based approaches: Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU), Play Practice, Game Sense, Tactical Games approach, Games Concept approach, Tactical Games Model, Tactical Decision Learning model, Ball Schulle and Invasion Games Competence model.(Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) Special Interest Group

Table 3 .
Responsibility through Physical Activity (TPSR) to present a model of game play which demonstrated a particularly constructivist learning style.They found that some of the features of TPSR strengthened the foundation of SE, but a hybrid model (Empowering Sport) needed to be developed.This hybrid model presented a powerful triangle of goals: sport skill competence, social responsibility, and personal empowerment.Despite the positive results stemming from hybrid models such as Empowering Sport, follow-up studies specifically using these developments have not occurred and the original SE model continues to occupy the majority of scholarly and research literature informing PE teachers intentions to educate in, through and about sport.Sport education in PE model then school (and sporting clubs) are often required to respond in ways that are practical and appropriate.Curricula response in Australian schools inevitably view the Health and PE Learning Area as the place where these values, skills and abilities are best learnt(Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, 2008).Other examples of sport-based programs for personal and social skill learning include the Sports United to Promote Education and Recreation program

Table 4 .
Sport as a tool for personal and social skill teaching and learning in PE Game Based approaches (such as Game Sense (Australia)) to learning in PE technical and tactical dimensions of skilled performance in game play are promoted in preference to direct instruction or practice based models; 2. The SE curriculum and instruction model is well researched and validated as a design to provide authentic, educationally rich sport experiences for students in the context of school PE; and