Study strategies

Students often ask why critical thinking is required at university and what it means to be a critical thinker.

Critical thinking has been variously defined but the following two definitions may help you to understand it better.

Critical thinking is a process, the goal of which is to make reasonable decisions about what to believe and what to do (p.xvii).

Ennis, R. H 1996, Critical thinking,  Prentice-Hall, NJ.

Critical thinking is evaluating whether we should be convinced that some claim is true or some argument is good, as well as formulating good arguments. p. 5

Weighing up alternatives in order to make decisions is part of the critical thinking process. For example, think about the  following activities and ask yourself what strategies you would use to come to a decision about:

• buying a car
• choosing where to go for a holiday
• selecting a university course
• moving to a different city.

In each of the activities listed above, you probably noticed that you would  have to find information, analyse and evaluate the alternatives in relation to your aims and requirements and reach a conclusion. All of these processes are part of critical analysis; thinking critically is an activity you use in making decisions and evaluating different possibilities.

Critical thinking involves active involvement. You are not passively accepting everything that you read or hear but are questioning, evaluating, categorising information and making connections within the text and comparing what the author is saying with other experts who have written on the same topic.

At university you are asked to think critically when you read academic texts, when you write academic assignments and when you present in tutorials or seminars.

One of the key strategies you can use when reading critically is to ask yourself a series of questions. Begin by asking questions which relate to the text overall and then look at the author’s argument and the evidence used to support it.

Examine the overall credibility of the text

The first level of reading critically

• Who is the author and when was this written?
• What is the author’s approach and perspective?
• What is the author saying? (Try to sum up the argument in your own words)
• What are the main points of this text?
• Who/what is left out of the text?
• On first reading, does this seem a credible argument? Why?

Examine the argument and the evidence

(These questions will help you to evaluate the validity of the argument and enable you to better understand how the argument has been developed and supported).

• What evidence has been presented to support the argument?
• What is the quality of the evidence?(Is the evidence anecdotal or supported by research and/or scientific study?)
• Is the evidence referenced? (or is the author relying solely on their own research?)
• Is the evidence recent and relevant?
• Is there a logical development of ideas?
• Which parts of the argument do I agree with and why?
• Which parts of the argument do I disagree with and why?
• What assumptions does the author make?

Analyse the style and tone of the argument

• Is the argument clearly expressed?
• Does the writer’s language, tone or choice of examples reveal any biases? If so do these biases reduce the credibility of the argument?
• Does the author use emotive terms or examples to persuade the reader?
• Do these strategies enhance or detract from the argument?

Overall assessment of the writing

• Does the writing challenge your own biases, assumptions and beliefs?
• Are you capable of reviewing your beliefs/assumptions in the light of the argument presented?
• What were the strengths of the argument?
• What were the weaknesses of the argument?
• How convincing was this piece of writing?
• What connections do you see between this text and other texts?

When writing at university, your aim is to convince the reader by using critical thinking to promote your argument. Ask yourself the following questions when you are planning and writing your first draft.

• What is your purpose in writing?
• Have you clearly formulated your thesis/argument?
• Have you gathered the evidence to support your argument?
• Have you provided your reader with accurate references?
• Is your argument rational and logical?
• Have you read widely to gain a broad perspective on the topic?
• Have you expressed yourself clearly? Have you used examples to illustrate your point?
• Have you been accurate in your claims?
• Have you addressed the question?
• Is the evidence you are using relevant?
• Have you explored this topic in depth or have you just skimmed over the surface?
• Have you structured your argument effectively and  provided the reader with an effective/relevant introduction and conclusion?

Before giving a presentation it is vital to consider your purpose, the needs of your audience and how best to research and present the topic.  These considerations will help you to structure your talk so that it is relevant (on topic) and meaningful to your audience.

Consider the content of your presentation in terms of the questions listed in the previous section (critical thinking for academic writing) but remember that this is an oral presentation and you have to engage your audience and sustain their interest in the topic.

Using your critical thinking skills will help you to research, plan and anticipate any questions that may arise in relation to the topic.

Critical thinking is a vital aspect of academic engagement and the more you practice developing these skills, the better you will be at analysing, questioning and evaluating your own writing as well as the academic texts you encounter at university.

Skimming involves reading key parts of the text. You can use it when you need to get an overview of an author's main line of argument.

Two basic skim-reading techniques

Start-finish

This strategy is based on the idea that all well-written articles, essays and chapters of books are structured in the following way:

• introduction
• body
• conclusion.

This means that the central ideas should be presented three times:

• noted briefly in the introduction
• discussed in detail in the body of the text
• reviewed briefly in the conclusion.

The beginning and ending paragraphs of a text should provide summaries of its central ideas.

The strategy here is to carefully read:

• the first few paragraphs of each chapter or section
• the final paragraph or conclusion of each chapter or section.

First sentences

This strategy assumes that the first or opening sentence of each paragraph introduces the main point(s) to be discussed in that paragraph.

Reading only the opening sentence of each paragraph often gives you a clearer understanding of the author's reasoning and the structure of the argument than just relying on the introduction and conclusion.

Once you have established that the material is what you need then you can re-read it.

First sentence technique

The first sentence technique is also an effective strategy to use when note taking from books (and/or chapters of books) and articles. It can be used to create effective summaries of other people's writings - remembering, of course, that the sentences are still the author's words.

Once you have created the summaries you will still have to rewrite them in your own words. This is known as paraphrasing.

Most people use scanning to read web pages when surfing the internet. Scanning helps you establish where in a book or article specific information is located.

How do I scan?

Suppose you have found a book whose title looks very promising in terms of the information that you are seeking.

Step one

Open the book and look at the table of contents, located at the front of the book. It will list most, but not necessarily all of the following subsections:

• a preface
• a list of diagrams or tables or illustrations
• an introduction
• the various chapters in sequence from 1 to n
• a conclusion
• a bibliography
• an index.

Step two

Read the chapter headings. Do they contain the information that you are looking for? If not, then go to the index at the back of the book.

Step three

Search the index for relevant topics or keywords. If this also draws a blank, then the put the book away and look for another that might be more fruitful for your topic.

Step four

When you find a relevant reference:

• in the table of contents go to the appropriate section of the book and read the first two paragraphs. These often contain a statement about what information will be covered. This will help you to assess whether the material is relevant for your topic. If you are still uncertain about the usefulness of the material, then read the final two paragraphs of the summary
• in the index go to the appropriate page or pages in the book. Find the paragraph in which the reference appears. Read the paragraph. If necessary, read the paragraph before and after the one specified by index entry.

Looking for key information involves looking in a given paragraph of passage of words for the key words that are relevant for your topic. It is a process that can be used in conjunction with scanning.

Finding key information

Keywords and ideas are often found in the opening paragraphs of a chapter or subsection of a chapter. Pay particular attention to the opening sentence and the opening paragraph.

Look for any hints given by the author. These might include:

• underlining
• bolding
• italics
• subheadings
• section breaks.

Reading in detail helps you to:

• gain a full understanding of material
• analyse and evaluate what you have read
• follow instructions or directions
• understand difficult terms or ideas.

Analytic reading involves reading in an active and systematic way so that you gain an understanding of what you are reading.

Two approaches to understanding what you read are:

1. the SQ3R technique
2. thinking through reading.

The SQ3R technique

S - Survey

• Glance through the whole chapter, section, or article
• Read the introduction
• Read the headings and subheadings (How is the text organised?)
• Read any content overview, chapter summary or ...
• Skim for key questions, key information

Q - Question

For each section ask:

• What is the main point?
• What evidence is there to support that point?
• What examples explain the main point?
• How does this section fit in with the rest of the text?

R1 - Read

Begin to read the material section by section. Actively search for the answer to the questions you have asked yourself. Make notes about important points.

Link the information with what you already know and use this to help evaluate the author’s statements.

R2 - Recite

After reading each section, recall the important points – say these aloud and write them down in the margins of the text. Make your notes in short phrases rather than full sentences. You may also highlight key information.

R3 - Review

Look back over the whole chapter or article at the way the information fitted together and how it addressed each of your questions. Think about what you have understood from the reading. Summarise the main ideas of the text in writing. Rewrite the notes you have taken (or paraphrase underlined sections) for easy review/reference later.

Thinking through reading

This technique involves enhancing your understanding of what you read by recognising the level of information that it contains. This involves three levels of recognition:

• What does the writer say?
  • This is literal recognition. It is concerned with the surface information conveyed by the writer's words.
• What does the writer mean?
  • This is interpretive recognition. We infer meaning from what the writer says. This is what is usually meant when we talk about reading between the lines.
• How do I connect this with what I already know or need to know?
• This is connective recognition. We look for connections between the literal and interpretive meanings with what we already know or need to know. In this way, we can:
  • find new solutions for problems
  • reach a new understanding
  • change our view.

Critical reading involves exercising your judgement about what you are reading. It involves you evaluating the arguments or positions presented by the writer. You ask questions of the claims or statements made by the author, and then seek to provide answers for those questions.

Common questions include:

• What is the evidence for this argument?
• Do I agree with it?
  • If so, what is my evidence for agreement?
  • If not, what is my evidence to counter the author's argument?
• What alternative perspectives are possible here?

Make a note of your answers and any other relevant questions and challenges that you think of.

Reading and thinking critically involves more than claiming that some idea, argument, or piece of writing is faulty. It involves presenting a reasoned argument that analyses what you are reading. Being critical, in a scholarly sense, is concerned with advancing our understanding, not closing it off.

The most effective way to read a difficult text is to break the task into parts, and only work on one section of the text at a time.

For each section:

1. scan the section checking headings and subheadings and look at how the text is organised
2. read the introductory and concluding paragraphs to get a general idea of what is in that part of the text
3. read the text, shorter sections at a time. As you read, Look up any key words that you don’t understand and can’t guess from the context;
   at the end of each part:
   • look away and try to restate what you think the text is saying
   • write down a few notes
   • mark any parts that you do not understand and come back to them later.
4. even if you don’t understand very well what you are reading, keep on going as the ideas may become clearer later in the text
5. reread parts of the text that are still not clear to you
6. if you are still finding the text difficult, leave it for 24 hours and come back to it. You may find that a second or third reading will give you a better understanding of the text.

A useful tool for this is a mind map. This will help you to clarify and understand the key concepts of the topic

Don’t forget to include any readings or lecture/tutorial content that fit this topic.

Looking for key information involves looking in a given paragraph or passage of words for the keywords that are relevant for your topic. It is a process that can be used in conjunction with scanning.

Keywords and ideas are often found in the opening paragraphs of a chapter or subsection of a chapter. Pay particular attention to the opening sentence and the opening paragraph.

Look for any hints given by the author. These might include:

• underlining
• bolding
• italics
• subheadings
• section breaks.

Once you have established what the key information is, you will need to read it in detail.

Reading in detail helps you to:

• gain a full understanding of material
• analyse and evaluate what you have read
• follow instructions or directions
• understand difficult terms or ideas.

You need to get a broader understanding of the task by testing your key words in a Boolean search.

Look for information in:

• books
• journals (databases)
• online dictionaries and encyclopaedias.

Have you found too much information? Have you found too little information? Review your research results and decide if you need to narrow or widen your search terms. It might be necessary to repeat steps 2 and 3.

The researching skills (CDU Library) workshop explains periodicals (journals) databases, Boolean search strategies and ways of reviewing your search.

When you find information, it won’t all be suitable. Use skimming and scanning techniques to decide which items you will use and which you will discard.

Active readers make notes.

Your notes should include:

• title (book/ chapter, article/ journal, website)
• author(s)/editors
• date published.

Always note page numbers against individual notes. This will save you a lot of time when you are actually writing your paper.

Learn how to transform a journal reference to an APA 7th referencing style.

Effective note makers:

Do

• Practice! Try taking brief notes from a television show you are watching, (e.g. a news item; short documentary), or from a short magazine article.
• Translate information into your own words (paraphrase) and summarise
• Record the bibliographic details of the source
• Organise notes in some form (it could be as outlines, flowcharts, diagrams, lists, column styles)
• Review your notes while the text or lecture is still fresh in your memory. Fill in any gaps you see or further thoughts.
• Try other methods to record your notes such as recording your voice or typing on a laptop
• Research note taking skills and experiment to develop a system that works for you!

Don’t

• Don’t try to write every word – select the major points and important information (especially if you are taking notes in a lecture)
• Don’t write complete sentences, streamline with abbreviations and symbols, organise – leave out the small connecting words (such as was, the, this).

During the lecture

What you decide to note, and in how much detail, will depend to some extent, on your subject and what you need the notes for.

If the information in the lecture is not available anywhere else, or very difficult to obtain from other sources, then your notes will need to be as detailed as possible.

However if the information is readily available in books or journals (especially a set textbook for the subject), then you should focus on the points or issues that are highlighted by the lecturer.

There are some common features that you might need to note down:

• main points as emphasised by the lecturer
• topic specific terms, phrases and key words
• definitions
• examples
• diagrams
• formulae (and their derivations if appropriate)
• calculations
• relevant questions and answers.

After the lecture

Immediately after the lecture (or as soon as possible and certainly within twenty-four hours) review your notes. This will enable you to:

• identify any gaps in the information and add in any new information that you might have thought of since the lecture
• formulate questions that need further research
• highlight key points
• add relevant references and link them to the main points of the lecture.

Storing your notes

Store your notes in a loose-leaf folder, or a ring binder, so that you can move the pages around as well as add any new material such as handouts and other reference matter.

Regular revision

It is a good idea to revise your notes on a regular, ongoing basis, say for five to ten minutes once a week. Each time you skim through your notes the material will become a little more firmly embedded in your memory.

In most subjects, books and scholarly journals will provide the largest source of material for your notes.

What you decide to note, and the amount of detail will depend, to some extent, on your purpose for taking notes. However, there are some common features that you might wish to include:

• main points and relevant supporting details
• topic specific terms, phrases and key words
• definitions
• diagrams
• formulae (and their derivations if appropriate)
• calculations
• quotes.

Annotation

 This involves you adding comments to a text that explain or critique what you have read. These can be written in the margins and may accompany words you have highlighted to identify key information. Of course, this would not be on borrowed texts!

Diagrams 

They are a more visual form of taking notes. They could be mind-maps, charts, tables, graphs, or perhaps a drawing to capture a process or cycle for example.

Paraphrasing

This means expressing the ideas and information of others in your own words. Transforming the original source material helps you to understand it.

Summaries 

And finally, summaries are focused on the main points of the source material so they are a shorter overview.

Pens, pencils, coloured highlighters and paper note pads are familiar tools for hand written notes. However, there are other effective tools for recording lecture material and for making notes electronically on a computer, tablet, iPad or smartphone for example. A variety of note-taking software and mobile applications are also available.

It can be useful to audio record lectures for later review and follow-up note making. Digital recorders are increasingly affordable and files can be transferred to a computer. Many mobile phones also enable audio recording. Mobile devices such as iPads and other tablets and smartpens are becoming popular options.  

Note that you have sought the permission of the lecturer to make such digital recordings.

Intellectual copyright is a crucial issue to consider when recording audio or photographing presentation slides in lectures.

You must have the permission of the lecturer to record these. Some lecturers may provide students with a copy of their lecture and/or presentation slides on their unit site or by request.

Your notes are a key part of your revision strategies when preparing for exams, or indeed, for preparing for active, informed participation in tutorials and when researching for and writing your assignments. Organising and reviewing your notes can also help you make connections between individual ideas and gain an overview of the whole subject.

You will need to revisit and work on the notes you have taken throughout the semester.

• Organise notes in a logical way so you can find important information quickly.
• Read them again, highlighting key words and ideas.
• Summarise your notes to help remember ideas and information – your goal now is to minimise them to serve as a memory aid.
• Consider creating mindmaps or brief outlines to summarise.

Remember, revision is best done throughout the semester, not just when exams are scheduled. Time management is very important as your semester plan should include exam preparation and dates, supported by specific weekly plans for the week leading up to and during your exams.

Whichever note-making layout you choose to use, you may find it useful to use abbreviations and shortened versions of commonly used words. This will help you save time with writing so that you can concentrate on noting the essential points or ideas. Some common abbreviations are listed below.

Taking notes in a linear or sequential fashion is probably the most common way of laying out your notes. A wide left-hand margin is used so that you can add material to your notes at a later date.

In this style of notetaking the information is represented in a diagrammatical form. Many different types of diagrams can be used such as key word trees, networks, and herringbone techniques.

As a general rule the main idea or topic is written in the centre of the page (or in a prominent position) with key points added around it in a cluster fashion branching out from the central idea.

Mind maps are extremely useful ways of organising ideas. However, you are restricted to using key words. This requires you to be concise but it can be difficult if there is a large bulk of information and it cannot easily be condensed.

Mind maps are also very effective in helping you organise material when you are planning an essay outline.

This basically makes use of a slash pattern to organise ideas. It is especially useful if you are trying to map out the ideas in a debate or controversy. It enable opposing ideas to be mapped e.g. pros/cons, costs/benefits, advantages/disadvantages, and so on.

The herringbone technique, so-named because it resembles a fish skeleton, is useful for analysing a single idea.

You ask of the main idea Who?, What?, When?, Where?, Why?, and How? In so doing you are able to represent the key idea and aspects of its supporting data.

This example comes from Monash University, Language and Learning Online, and is part of an excellent interactive resource on note making.

You may have explored some note layouts you can use to record, review and annotate what you read and hear as part of your learning, but it is also important to organise and store your notes effectively for easy access.

Useful tips

• Use a separate file for each subject area
• Use file dividers to separate major topics
• Use a separate page for each minor topic
• Label files and dividers clearly
• Number and label pages so you can find and re-file them quickly
• Keep an updated contents page at the front of each file.

If you are making notes electronically, either by creating documents or audio recordings for example, you also need to manage your digital media.

• Create a separate digital folder for each subject area
• Create separate folders within the subject folder for major topics
• Create separate documents saved in the appropriate folder for each minor topic
• Name your folders and files meaningfully and logically
• Include page numbers and document labels in headers and/or footers.

Find more information about managing and protecting your work in below.